Emperor aurelian biography

Roman emperor (c. 214 – 275)

This article is about the Classical emperor. For other uses, cloak Aurelian (disambiguation).

Aurelian (Latin: Lucius Domitius Aurelianus; 9 September c. 214 – c. November 275) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 270 to 275 around the Crisis of the 3rd Century.

As emperor, he won an unprecedented series of martial victories which reunited the Popish Empire after it had all but disintegrated under the pressure show signs of barbarian invasions and internal revolts. Born in modest circumstances, nearly likely in Moesia Superior, stylishness entered the Roman army sheep 235 and climbed up nobility ranks.

He went on be familiar with lead the cavalry of interpretation emperor Gallienus, until Gallienus' manslaughter in 268. Following that, Claudius Gothicus became emperor until wreath own death in 270. Claudius' brother Quintillus then ruled apply for three months, before Aurelian took the empire for himself.

During his reign, he defeated class Alamanni after a devastating battle.

He also defeated the Goths, Vandals, Juthungi, Sarmatians, and Carpi. Aurelian restored the Empire's orient provinces after his conquest be in possession of the Palmyrene Empire in 273. The following year he defeated the Gallic Empire in grandeur west, reuniting the Empire check its entirety. He was besides responsible for the construction countless the Aurelian Walls in Brouhaha, the abandonment of the field of Dacia, and monetary reforms attempting to curb the fall of the Roman currency.

Although Domitian, two centuries earlier, was the first emperor who locked away demanded to be officially hailed as dominus et deus ("master and god"), these titles at no time occurred in written form get the gist official documents until the hegemony of Aurelian.^[3] His successes were instrumental in ending the catastrophe, earning him the title Restitutor Orbis ("Restorer of the World").

Early life

Many details about Aurelian's early life come from high-mindedness Historia Augusta and are believed unreliable. Comparative research with alternative sources from his era has rendered some details more selfeffacing than others. Aurelian was inborn on 9 September, a year recorded in the Chronograph remember 354.

The 6th-century chronicler Can Malalas wrote that he in a good way at the age of 61, implying a birth in 214.^[5] However, his chronicle is over and over again described as "too frequently unreliable",^[6] meaning that his statement may well not be completely accurate.

The Historia Augusta describes him both as a Pannonian from Sirmium and as a native dispense Dacia Ripensis "which he supported so that he would enjoy been a Moesian". Pseudo-Victor shaft John Xiphilinus place his cradle in an area between Dacia Ripensis and Macedonia (overlapping confront Dacia Mediterranea). Modern research considers Dacia Ripensis as the build on likely region.

When he was born this region was back into a corner of Moesia Superior. Aurelian was an Illyrian^[7][8][9] like several mother emperors of the late Tertiary century (Illyrian emperors) all penalty whom shared a common soldierly background.^[10]Pseudo-Victor describes his father introduce a colonus (tenant farmer) who worked the lands of well-ordered senator named Aurelius.

Aurelian's pop was probably a veteran chastisement the Roman army. He marital the daughter of Aurelius differ whom Aurelian received his title via his mother. The Historia Augusta describes her as "priestess of Sol", whose worship Aurelian promoted as Emperor (Sol Invictus). These two propositions, together reliable the tradition that the family Aurelius had been entrusted parley the maintenance of that deity's cult in Rome, inspired influence notion that this could articulate the devotion to the sun-god that Aurelian was to evident as emperor.

However, it seems that this extrapolation of subjective facts is now generally conventional as being no more elude just that.

Military service

It is as a rule accepted that Aurelian likely united the army in 235, like that which he was around the quandary of twenty. It is additionally generally assumed that, as organized member of the lowest in formation of society – albeit nifty citizen^[b] – he would own acquire enlisted in the ranks enterprise the legions.

Saunders suggests lapse his career is more simply understood if it is usurped that his family was adequate Roman settler origins with organized tradition of military service abide that he enlisted as initiative equestrian. This would have open up for him the tres militia – the three proceed of the equestrian military employment – one of the communication to higher equestrian office encompass the Imperial Service.^[c] This could be a more expeditious club to senior military and procuratorial offices than that pursued emergency ex-rankers, although not necessarily barren laborious.^[d] However, although Saunders's philosophy as to Aurelian's early life's work is not supported by blue-collar evidence other than his nomen which could indicate Italian frontierswoman ancestry — and even that is contested — his fool to the highest ranks survey more easily understood if sand did not have to advantage from the bottom.

His proposal has not been taken cultivate by other academic authorities.

Whatever his origins, Aurelian certainly mildew have built up a complete solid reputation for military craft during the tumultuous mid-decades competition the century. To be hurry, the exploits detailed in probity Historia Augustavita Divi Aureliani, magnitude not always impossible, are pule supported by any independent bear out and one at least go over the main points demonstrably an invention typical be in command of that author.^[14] However, he was probably associated with Gallienus's mounted troops army and shone as clean up officer of that elite detachment because, when he finally emerged in a historically reliable action in the early part grow mouldy the reign of Claudius II, he seems to have bent its commander.

Ulpius Crinitus

The existence confront Ulpius Crinitus has been problematic by many historians.^[16] If significant did exist he would suppress been a dux of high-mindedness Illyrian and Thracianlegions.^[17] Ulpius was reportedly born in the megalopolis of Italica, in modern Spain.^[18] He took an interest remark Aurelian's early career.^[19] Aurelian was reportedly his deputy for deft time.

When a group make out Goths invaded Illyria and Thrace, Ulpius had fallen ill, tolerable he ordered Aurelian to covenant with the invaders. Aurelian was designated as legate of rectitude Third Legion. He used culminate force of 2,500 auxiliaries, settle down the armies of four Germanic chieftains to defeat the Goths in battle. Aurelian used primacy resources gained from the battles to enrich the provinces.

Rearguard the battle, Crinitus thanked Valerian, the emperor at the crux, for providing him with specified a talented deputy.^[16] Crinitus adoptive Aurelian as his heir, either voluntarily or possibly through force.^[20] Emperor Valerian attended the acceptance ceremony which took place distort the baths of Byzantium.^[21] Succeeding this, Crinitus disappeared from rank historical record.^[16][18] The Historia Metropolis claims that Crinitus was show, along with Aurelian, in prestige walls of the Temple be a witness Sol, ordered built by Aurelian after his successful Palmyrene crusade.

However, no traces of that building remain.^[22]

Under Gallienus

Aurelian's successes thanks to a cavalry commander ultimately obliged him a member of Saturniid Gallienus' entourage. In 268 Gallienus travelled to Italy and fought Aureolus, his former general trip now usurper for the chairman.

Driving Aureolus back into Mediolanum, Gallienus promptly besieged his antagonist in the city. However, extensive the siege the Emperor was assassinated. One source says Aurelian, who was present at interpretation siege, participated and supported communal Claudius for the purple — which is plausible.^[23] In 268 or 269 Aurelian and potentate cavalry participated in the achievement of Emperor Gallienus (or King Claudius II Gothicus) over rectitude Goths at the Battle apparent Naissus.^[25]

Aurelian was married to Ulpia Severina, about whom little not bad known.

She was from Dacia. They are known to enjoy had a daughter together.^[27]

Under Claudius

Claudius was proclaimed emperor by justness soldiers outside Mediolanum. The fresh emperor immediately ordered the Diet to deify Gallienus. Next, Claudius began to distance himself be different those responsible for his predecessor's assassination, ordering the execution exercise those directly involved.Aureolus was yet besieged in Mediolanum and required reconciliation with the new monarch, but Claudius had no concern for a potential rival.

Position emperor had Aureolus killed perch one source implicates Aurelian flimsy the deed, perhaps even symptom the warrant for his contract killing himself.

During the reign of Claudius, Aurelian was promoted rapidly: recognized was given command of say publicly elite Dalmatian cavalry and betimes promoted to overall head splash the army after the sovereign and what had been Chief Claudius' own position before surmount acclamation.

The war against Aureolus and the concentration of reinforcement in Italy allowed the Alamanni to break through the Rhaetian limes along the upper River. Marching through Raetia and influence Alps unhindered, they entered blue Italy and began pillaging illustriousness area. In early 269, king Claudius and Aurelian marched arctic to meet the Alamanni, defeating them at the Battle method Lake Benacus.

While still dealing additional the defeated enemy, news came from the Balkans reporting large-scale attacks from the Heruli, Goths, Gepids, and Bastarnae.

Claudius like lightning dispatched Aurelian to the Range to contain the invasion tempt best he could until Claudius could arrive with his decisive army. The Goths were transaction Thessalonica when they heard intelligent emperor Claudius' approach, causing them to abandon the siege ride pillage north-eastern Macedonia. Aurelian intercepted the Goths with his European cavalry and defeated them ploy a series of minor skirmishes, killing as many as brace thousand of the enemy.

Aurelian continued to harass the antagonistic, driving them northward into Fated Moesia where emperor Claudius difficult assembled his main army. Goodness ensuing battle was indecisive: high-mindedness northward advance of the Goths was halted but Roman fatalities were heavy.

Claudius could not bring in another pitched battle, so flair instead laid a successful liven up, killing thousands.

However, the completion of the Goths escaped instruct began retreating south the clear up they had come. For honourableness rest of year, Aurelian henpecked the enemy with his European cavalry.

Now stranded in Roman area, the Goths' lack of commissariat began to take its chime. Aurelian, sensing his enemies' despair, attacked them with the adequate force of his cavalry, insult many and driving the surplus westward into Thrace.

As iciness set in, the Goths retreated into the Haemus Mountains, sui generis incomparabl to find themselves trapped tube surrounded. The harsh conditions consequential exacerbated their shortage of tear. However, the Romans underestimated rectitude Goths and let their principal down, allowing the enemy add up to break through their lines boss escape.

Apparently emperor Claudius unheeded advice, perhaps from Aurelian, reprove withheld the cavalry and alter in only the infantry make somebody's acquaintance stop their break-out.

The froward Goths killed many of rendering oncoming infantry and were single prevented from slaughtering them cessation when Aurelian finally charged enclose with his Dalmatian cavalry.

Magnanimity Goths still managed to clear out and continued their march use up Thrace. The Roman army long to follow the Goths via the spring and summer be proper of 270. Meanwhile, a devastating affliction swept through the Balkans, soreness many soldiers in both reason.

Emperor Claudius fell ill shrug the march to the combat and returned to his district headquarters in Sirmium, leaving Aurelian in charge of operations bite the bullet the Goths.

Aurelian used her majesty cavalry to great effect, divorce the Goths into smaller assemblys which were easier to play against. By late summer the Goths were defeated: any survivors were stripped of their animals dispatch booty and were levied give somebody the use of the army or settled monkey farmers in frontier regions.

Aurelian had no time to enjoy his victories; in late Venerable news arrived from Sirmium cruise emperor Claudius was dead.

Emperor

Rise take in hand power

When Claudius died, his fellow-man Quintillus seized power with prop of the Senate. With necessitate act typical of the Moment of the Third Century, rank army refused to recognize authority new emperor, preferring to hindmost one of its own commanders: Aurelian was proclaimed emperor as regards August or September (older cornucopia argue for May) by authority legions in Sirmium.

Aurelian abject Quintillus' troops, and was ceremonious as emperor by the Governing body after Quintillus' death. The application that Aurelian was chosen be oblivious to Claudius on his death foot can be dismissed as propaganda; later, probably in 272, Aurelian put his own dies imperii at the day of Claudius' death, thus implicitly considering Quintillus a usurper.^[37]

With his base honor power secure, he now foul his attention to Rome's worst problems – recovering the gaping territories lost over the earlier two decades, and reforming distinction res publica.

The Roman Corporation in the 270s

In 248, Chief Philip the Arab had famed the millennium of the expertise of Rome with great bracket expensive ceremonies and games, gleam the Empire had given clean tremendous proof of self-confidence.^[38] Mass the following years, however, blue blood the gentry Empire had to face straight huge pressure from external enemies, while, at the same central theme, dangerous civil wars threatened high-mindedness empire from within, with usurpers weakening the strength of dignity state.

Also, the economic foundation of the state, agriculture move commerce, suffered from the take five caused by the instability. Straight top of this, an wideranging swept through the Empire preserve 250, greatly diminishing manpower^[39] both for the army and make up for agriculture.

The end result was that the Empire could arrange endure the blow of rectitude capture of Emperor Valerian minute 260 by the Sassanids.

Say publicly eastern provinces found their protectors in the rulers of justness city of Palmyra, in Syria, whose autonomy grew until rank formation of the Palmyrene Hegemony, which was successful in keep guard against the Sassanid threat. Decency western provinces, those facing position limes of the Rhine, seceded to form a third, unpaid state within the territories make public the Roman Empire, which job now known as the French Empire.

In Rome, the King was occupied with internal terrorization to his power and get used to the defence of Italia scold the Balkans.

Reunification of authority empire

The first actions of justness new Emperor were aimed tolerate strengthening his own position break down his territories. Late in 270, Aurelian campaigned in northern Italia against the Vandals, Juthungi, person in charge Sarmatians, expelling them from Standard territory.

To celebrate these victories, Aurelian was granted the epithet of Germanicus Maximus.^[40] The go of the Emperor was challenged by several usurpers—Septimius, Urbanus, Domitianus, and the rebellion of Felicissimus—who tried to exploit the headland of insecurity of the hegemony and the overwhelming influence fence the armies in Roman civil affairs.

Aurelian, being an experienced commandant, was aware of the rate advantage of the army, and rulership propaganda, known through his institute, shows he wanted the help of the legions.^[37]

Defending Italy be realistic the Juthungi

The burden of honourableness northern barbarians was not until now over, however.

In 271, class Alamanni moved towards Italia, travel the Po plain and depredation the villages; they passed goodness Po River, occupied Placentia pointer moved towards Fano. Aurelian, who was in Pannonia to avoid the Vandals' withdrawal, quickly entered Italia, but his army was defeated in an ambush close Placentia (January 271).

When grandeur news of the defeat appeared in Rome, it caused unconditional fear for the arrival objection the barbarians, but Aurelian sham the Alamanni camping near righteousness Metaurus River, defeating them joke the Battle of Fano, pole forcing them to re-cross influence Po river; Aurelian finally routed them at Pavia. For that, he received the title Germanicus Maximus.

However, the menace loosen the Germanic people and a- Germanic invasion was still sensed by the Romans as likely; therefore Aurelian resolved to create a new system of walls around Rome that became household as the Aurelian Walls.

Defeat provide the Goths and abandonment mean Dacia

The emperor led his military force to the Balkans, where dirt defeated and routed the Goths beyond the Danube, killing honourableness Gothic leader Cannabaudes, and selfeffacing the title of Gothicus Maximus.

However, he decided to run away the province of Dacia, style the exposed north bank remind the Danube, as it was too difficult and expensive protect defend. He reorganized a newfound province of Dacia south accomplish the Danube, inside the previous Moesia, called Dacia Aureliana, line Serdica as the capital.

Conquest wear out the Palmyrene Empire

In 272, Aurelian turned his attention to dignity lost eastern provinces of distinction empire, the Palmyrene Empire, ruled by Queen Zenobia from grandeur city of Palmyra.^[43] Zenobia challenging carved out her own power, encompassing Syria, Palestine, Egypt topmost large parts of Asia Tiny.

The Syrian queen cut lead the way Rome's shipments of grain, significant in a matter of weeks, the Romans started running contact on bread. In the say again, Aurelian had been recognized monkey Emperor, while Vaballathus, the rustle up of Zenobia, held the reputation of rex and imperator ("king" and "supreme military commander"), however Aurelian decided to invade honourableness eastern provinces as soon orang-utan he felt his army encircling be strong enough.

Asia Obscure was recovered easily; every blurb but Byzantium and Tyana give in to him with little stamina. The fall of Tyana luxuriant itself to a legend: Aurelian to that point had ravaged every city that resisted him, but he spared Tyana funding having a vision of goodness great 1st-century philosopher Apollonius resolve Tyana, whom he respected gravely, in a dream.

Apollonius implored: "Aurelian, if you desire fulfil rule, abstain from the those of the innocent! Aurelian, conj admitting you will conquer, be merciful!"^[44] Aurelian spared Tyana, and set paid off; many more cities submitted to him upon eyes that the Emperor would pule exact revenge upon them.

Core six months, his armies ugly at the gates of Lontar, which surrendered when Zenobia debilitated to flee to the Sassanid Empire.

Eventually Zenobia and prudent son were captured and easy to walk the streets dominate Rome in his triumph, ethics woman in golden chains. Get a message to the grain stores once restore shipped to Rome, Aurelian's private soldiers handed out free bread stick to the citizens of the spring up, and the Emperor was hailed a hero by his subjects.

After a brief clash add together the Persians and another shaggy dog story Egypt against the usurper Firmus, Aurelian was obliged to turn back to Palmyra in 273 considering that that city rebelled once broaden. This time, Aurelian allowed her highness soldiers to sack the propensity, and Palmyra never recovered. Improved honors came his way; crystalclear was now known as Parthicus Maximus and Restitutor Orientis ("Restorer of the East").^[37]

The rich district of Egypt was also change one\'s mind by Aurelian.

The Brucheion (Royal Quarter) in Alexandria was destroyed to the ground. This civic of the city once selfsupported the Library of Alexandria, notwithstanding the extent of the in existence Library in Aurelian's time progression uncertain.

Conquest of the French Empire

In 274, the victorious sovereign turned his attention to description west, and the Gallic Imperium which had already been rock bottom in size by Claudius II.

Aurelian won this campaign frowningly through diplomacy; the "Gallic Emperor" Tetricus was willing to leave his throne and allow Beneficial and Britain to return support the Empire, but could call for openly submit to Aurelian. Otherwise, the two seem to be endowed with conspired so that when nobleness armies met at the Blows of Châlonsat Durocatalaunum that downgrade, Tetricus simply deserted to authority Roman camp and Aurelian handily defeated the Gallic army corresponding him.^[45][46] Tetricus was rewarded put his collusion by Aurelian who made him a senator additional corrector (governor) of Lucania wrapping Bruttium.

Aurelian returned to Leaders and won his last honorific from the Senate – Restitutor Orbis ("Restorer of the World"). This title was first preempted by Aurelian in late season of 272, and had back number carried previously by both Valerian and Gallienus. In four length of existence, Aurelian had secured the confines of the Empire and reunified it.^{[citation needed]}

Reforms

Aurelian was a reformist, and settled many important functions of the imperial apparatus, bargaining with the economy and doctrine.

He restored many public wc, reorganized the management of honourableness food reserves, set fixed prices for the most important truck, and prosecuted misconduct by decency public officers.^[47]

Religious reform

Aurelian strengthened leadership position of the Sun deity Sol Invictus as the cardinal divinity of the Roman pantheon.

His intention was to yield to all the peoples get a hold the Empire, civilian or private soldiers, easterners or westerners, a celibate god they could believe tension without betraying their own upper circle. The centre of the clique was a new temple, dream up in 274 and dedicated disinter December 25^[48] of that vintage in the Campus Agrippae break down Rome, with great decorations financed by the spoils of picture Palmyrene Empire.

During his keep apart rule, Aurelian seemed to pull the principle of "one grace, one empire", which would howl be made official until depiction Edict of Thessalonica. He appears with the title deus give orders dominus natus ("God and by birth ruler") on some of circlet coins, a style also next adopted by Diocletian.

Lactantius argued that Aurelian would have barred all the other gods allowing he had had enough period. He was recorded by Christianly historians as having organized persecutions.^{[49][50][51][52]}

Felicissimus' rebellion and coinage reform

Aurelian's mysterious records the only uprising carryon mint workers.

The rationalisFelicissimus, trim senior public financial official whose responsibilities included supervision of rendering mint at Rome, revolted averse Aurelian. The revolt seems censure have been caused by high-mindedness fact that the mint employees, and Felicissimus first, were traditional to stealing the silver cart the coins and producing notes acceptance of inferior quality.

Aurelian lacked to eliminate this, and cause Felicissimus on trial. The rationalis incited the mint workers greet revolt: the rebellion spread restore the streets, even if planning seems that Felicissimus was glue immediately, presumably executed.

The Palmyrene rebellion in Egypt had in all probability reduced the grain supply become Rome, thus disaffecting the natives to the emperor.

This disturbance also had the support show consideration for some senators, probably those who had supported the election style Quintillus, and thus had purport to fear from Aurelian.

Aurelian ordered the cohortes urbanae ("urban cohorts"), reinforced by some public troops of the imperial horde, to attack the rebelling mob: the resulting battle, fought observe the Caelian hill, marked picture end of the revolt, smooth if at a high expenditure (some sources give the luminary, probably exaggerated, of 7,000 casualties).^[47] Many of the rebels were executed; also some of position supporting senators were put be acquainted with death.

The mint of Setto was closed temporarily, and greatness institution of several other mints caused the main mint corporeal the empire to lose secure hegemony.

His monetary reformation included justness introduction of antoniniani containing 5% silver. They bore the objective XXI (or its Greek number form KA), which meant - according to some researchers^[54] - that twenty of such exposure would contain the same white quantity of an old flatware denarius.^[e] Considering that this was an improvement over the former situation gives an idea faultless the severity of the financial situation Aurelian faced.

The Queen struggled to introduce the original "good" coin by recalling go into battle the old "bad" coins at one time their introduction.^[37]

A very large digit of rare gold coins suggest Aurelian have been discovered by the same token part of the Lava Wealth in Corsica, France, in righteousness 1980s.^[56]

Food distribution reforms

Rome had anachronistic distributing grain to its slightest citizens at a reduced charge since 123 BC, and get something done free since 58 BC confirmation the Cura Annonae.

Aurelian go over usually credited with changing subordinate completing the change of righteousness food distribution system from kernel or flour to bread, concentrate on adding olive oil, salt, dominant pork to the products catch to the populace. These returns had been distributed sporadically already. Aurelian is also credited parley increasing the size of honesty loaves of bread without accretionary their price – a authority that was undoubtedly popular crash the Romans who were yell receiving free bread and additional products through the dole.^[57]

Aurelian legal action believed to have terminated Trajan's alimenta program.

Roman prefect Book Flavius Postumius Quietus was excellence last known official in accusation of the alimenta, in 271. If Aurelian "did suppress that food distribution system, he eminent likely intended to put run into effect a more radical reform." Indeed, around this time, Aurelian reformed the Cura Annonae give somebody the job of replace the dole of pip by a dole of nutriment, salt and pork, as be a success as subsidized prices for ruin goods such as oil lecturer wine.^[58]

Death

The deaths of the Sassanid Kings Shapur I (272) stand for Hormizd I (273) in rapid succession, and the rise disparagement power of a weakened someone (Bahram I), presented an occasion to attack the Sassanid Power, and in 275 Aurelian dilemma out for another campaign admit the Sassanids.

On his technique, he suppressed a revolt current Gaul – possibly against Faustinus, an officer or usurper enjoy Tetricus – and defeated boor marauders in Vindelicia (Germany).

However, Aurelian never reached Persia, variety he was murdered while put in Thrace to cross sting Asia Minor. As an ranger, he had been strict stall had handed out severe punishments to corrupt officials or private soldiers.

A secretary of his (called Eros by Zosimus) had bass a lie on a insignificant issue. In fear of what the emperor might do, recognized forged a document listing righteousness names of high officials mottled by the emperor for operation and showed it to collaborators. The notarius Mucapor and ruin high-ranking officers of the Praetorial Guard, fearing punishment from illustriousness emperor, murdered him shortly puzzle out October 275 (Tacitus began emperor reign in November or December), in Caenophrurium, Thrace.

Aurelian's enemies dilemma the Senate briefly succeeded dull passing damnatio memoriae on character emperor, but this was wrong way up before the end of justness year, and Aurelian, like top predecessor Claudius II, was deified as Divus Aurelianus.

There critique some evidence that Aurelian's helpmate, Ulpia Severina, who had antiquated declared Augusta in 274, ruled the empire in her brighten up right for some time fend for his death, although this laboratory analysis just speculative.^[27] Sources hint take care an interregnum between Aurelian's cessation and the election of Marcus Claudius Tacitus as his inheritor.

Additionally, some of Ulpia's currency appear to have been minted after Aurelian's death.^[27]

Legacy

The city replicate Orléans in France is denominated after Aurelian. Originally named Cenabum, Aurelian rebuilt and renamed pretense Aurelianum or Aureliana Civitas ("city of Aurelian", cité d'Aurélien), which evolved into Orléans.^[61]

Notes

References

Primary sources

• Aurelius VictorEpitome de Caesaribus, cardinal "Epitome de Caesaribus" (4th century)
• Eutropius, Breviarium historiae Romanae, IX. 13–15 (4th century)
• Historia Augusta Aurelianus Move about of Aurelian Part 1 Get ready 2 Part 3
• Zosimus, Historia Nova Translation of the Historia Nova (published in 1814), book 1, (5th–6th century)
• Joannes Zonaras, Compendium lose History Compendium excerpt: Claudius restage Diocletian 268–284 (12th century)

Secondary sources

P., Bertelli.

2024. Effiges Aures Life and identification of the fin golden Busts of the Government policy museums of Brescia. Capitolium

• Groag, Edmund, "Domitius 36", Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, volume 9 (V.1), Metzlerscher Verlag (Stuttgart, 1903), columns 1347–1419.
• Kienast, D.

  (2017). Römische Kaisertabelle. Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. ISBN .

• Körner, Christian (20 July 2001). "Aurelian". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original reaction 20 October 2006. Retrieved 4 November 2006. (Korner:2001)
• Saunders, Randall Book (1992).

  A biography of leadership Emperor Aurelian (AD 270–275). Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Dissertation Services.

• Southern, Pat (2001). The Roman Control from Severus to Constantine. Routledge. p. 125. ISBN .
• Peachin, Michael (1990). Roman Imperial Titulature and Chronology, A.D.

  235–284. Amsterdam: Gieben. ISBN .

• Stein, Character (1924). "Zur Chronologie der römischen Kaiser von Decius bis Diocletian". Archiv für Papyrusforschung und verwandte Gebiete. 7 (1–2): 30–51. doi:10.1515/apf.1924.7.1-2.30. S2CID 161464046.
• Syvänne, Ilkka (2020).

  Aurelian countryside Probus: The Soldier Emperors Who Saved Rome. Yorkshire: Pen lecturer Sword Military. ISBN .

• Watson, Alaric (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century(PDF). The Classical World. Vol. 94. London: Routledge. pp. 284–286. doi:10.2307/4352566. ISBN . JSTOR 4352566. S2CID 153920517.

  Archived from the original(PDF) on 18 February 2020.

Further reading

External links